WHAT IS LINGUISTICS? WHAT ARE SUBFIELDS OF LINGUISTICS?

Linguistics is studies of language, in other words, science of language.

It doesn’t focus on the rules and use of languages.

Its focus is on describing of language rules. So, we can say that linguistics is a descriptive discipline more than its prescriptive aspect.

There are some ways of doing linguistics:

For instance; when we mention about a certain time of language which it was used. (E.g. in 2010) 

This is called “synchronic” linguistics.

If we refer to a certain period of time, we are looking at the language from a “diachronic” viewpoint. 

Diachronic linguistics analyses language development during a period of time. (E.g. during Middle English or in the 1870s etc.)

Linguistics can be studied both in theoretical and applied way:

For example; searching how past forms are structured in English is a theoretical study.

This knowledge can be also applied by a teacher in the class. This is the applied way of linguistics studies.

Apart from this knowledge, I want to list the fields of study of linguistics. These are divided into two groups:

Structure of Language in Linguistics

Phonetics: The study and classification of speech sounds.

Phonology: The study of phonological relationships within a language or between different languages.

Morphology: The study of the forms of things, in particular:

Syntax: The study of the patterns of formation of sentences and phrases from words.

Semantics: The branch of linguistics and logic concerned with meaning. It is divided into two groups: Logical Semantics and Lexical Semantics.

Pragmatics: The branch of linguistics dealing with language in use and the contexts in which it is used.

The Other Subfields of Linguistics:

Historical Linguistics: The study of changes in a language or group of languages over a period of time.

Sociolinguistics: The study of language in relation to social factors, including differences of regional, class, and occupational dialect, gender differences, and bilingualism.

Psycholinguistics: The study of the relationships between linguistic behaviour and psychological processes, including the process of language acquisition.

Ethnolinguistics: The branch of linguistics concerned with the relations between linguistic and cultural behaviour.

Dialectology: The branch of linguistics concerned with the study of dialects.

Computational Linguistics: The branch of linguistics in which the techniques of computer science are applied to the analysis and synthesis of language and speech.

Neurolinguistics: The branch of linguistics dealing with the relationship between language and the structure and functioning of the brain.

WHAT IS LANGUAGE? WHAT ARE BROCA'S AND WERNICKE'S AREAS?

Languages were created by human beings, and people mention and search about languages by using it. This is reflexiveness of a language. 

For example; linguists do it every time, because they are doing their jobs on this matter.

Sounds in a language can differ from one another in both human and animal languages.

But there are some differences between them.

In human languages, every word is created with different sounds and these sounds are different from each other.

And this every sound can be used many times to form a new meaning in every trying.

In animals’ language, this feature can not be seen. This is called discreteness of language.

Language and the Brain

There is no certain knowledge about coming out languages (it is estimated about 30.000 – 100.000 years ago), but it is sure that they are developed gradually and cumulatively.

They are also changed in centuries because language concept is a living thing.

Language is a cognitive skill and so it is about functioning of the brain.

There are two hemispheres of the brain in terms of its functionality.

There are two main parts of the brain which are specialised in language processing, production and comprehension.

These are Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas on the left hemisphere of the brain. They are discovered first in 19^th century by two physicians.

WHAT IS LANGUAGE? WHAT ARE CHARACTERISTICS OF LANGUAGE?

Language is a coded system with sounds and symbols and it provides communication among people and animals.

People’s language is not same with animals’ language, it has a more featured system than animals’ language.

For example; people can expresses their feelings and thoughts by their language system, but animals can not do the same with their language.

5 Characteristics of Human Language

Displacement

To be able to refer times, places and living creatures in a language is a potential of it in terms of usability. But these things which are mentioned are not “now and here”. Displacement is about mentioning something which is not occuring now and here, maybe in the past or future.

For example; a student who talks about a class which s/he passed last year or is going to take next year (not now).

In this way, animal communication can be understood more easier. 

For instance; bees are dancing by being an example of displacement. They send messages to each other for a food which does not exist there, maybe 20 km further.

Arbitrariness

Words in languages are made of letters and sounds. No words are selected to be regular and logically related to the other, on the contrary they are all occurred arbitrarily and have no any relationship between their structures and meanings. 

For example; “aşk” word in Turkish means “liebe” in German and “love” in English. As you can see, there is no any similarity among their structural forms but they have the same meaning.

Productivity

Language is a living thing and changes constantly. New words, sounds and sentences can be created at any time.

Cultural Transmission

Some language must be learned and some of them are inherent or instinctive.

People must learn all the language codes which they are exposed to, if exposure does not ocur, language cannot be learnt. This language type is learnable, not instinctive or inherent.

For example; a Chinese baby who was adapted by English parents is supposed to speak which language s/he was exposed, that is English, not Chinese. Because it is not inherent on people.

But if we consider animals, we can see that their language system are inherent and not learnable, because they can not do it. They have to have an innate language system. They try to communicate with their offsprings to teach or show something when there is no threatening factor around.

Duality

There are many languages in the world. In this languages there are limited discrete sounds. For example, we have 44 phonemes in English, but there are unlimited types of meaningful/meaningless syllables.

With these sounds, we can create unlimited syllables as meaningful or meaningless such as "nub" (meaningful in English) and "nbu" (meaningless in English). But these meaningless patterns may have a meaning in other languages.

WHAT IS BLENDED / PERIPHERAL LEARNINGS IN ENGLISH? WHAT IS A FLIPPED CLASSROOM?

WHAT IS BLENDED LEARNING?

Blended Learning is simply one of learning systems used in language learning classes. This technique is combining two learning techniques:

Blended Learning

One of these techniques is learning in brick-and-mortar setting. That learning technique means learning in the class by face-to-face interaction. In other words, learning by traditional methods.

The other one is for reinforcement learning with online materials by technological devices.

Tests, exercises, videos and any other activities related to the lesson are given to the students to review subjects given by the teacher in the class.

For example:

Firstly, teacher teaches the subject in GTM in the class. (face to face interaction appears)

Then, teacher gives to students some online materials to reinforce their learning. (online material use appears)

As a conclusion, learning is blended with face-to-face interaction and online materials.

WHAT IS A FLIPPED CLASSROOM?

A flipped classroom paves the way for language teaching in-person (face-to-face). Well, what is this and how can it contribute to teaching a language?

Teaching in a flipped classroom technique requires students to be prepared by some online materials for the lesson before in-person learning time.

A Flipped Classroom

In flipped classroom , students are given some online materials related to the next class, and they do a preparation by these materials. Technological devices are used by this way.

When the students come to the class, teaching starts in-person.

A flipped classroom provides students a basis before learning in the class. So, they can understand the topic easily.

Students can know roughly what is the topic about which they will face in the class.

These preparatory online materials are used for learning the subject much easier.

WHAT IS PERIPHERAL LEARNING?

Peripheral learning is to get the knowledge through surrounding visual aids.

Peipheral learning has a great importance in teaching young learners.

Posters, pictures, lists of words hung on the wall are some of potential materials for peripheral learning.

It is crucial while teaching a language to beginners.

Peripheral Learning

THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH

The Main Theories:

Communicative Approach (CA) is based on learning by communicative patterns in target language.

It is a student and communication centered approach.

Authenticity in language learning process is one of the most important factors.

Meaning has a prior function in learning, so materials which are used in class must be authentic and contextual.

The Other Features of Communicative Approach

Interaction among students are crucial and must be led and enhanced by the teacher.

Learning lifestyles, daily habits and body language differences between two languages (target and native language) are important, so culture is another important factor in CA.

Teacher is not dominant in learning periods and it helps students to feel themselves more relaxed and freer in the class.

Teacher is a facilitator of learning and responsible for leading students and activities. S/he monitors the students and his/her main job is to decrease the threatening factors in the class.

Students are communicators and have a big responsibility in their own learning processes.

Student - student and teacher – student interactions are seen constantly, this approach mainly bases upon interaction.

Students make use of interactive activities such as group works, pair works, discussions and etc.

Meaning is a very crucial factor in vocabulary teaching. Vocabulary is taught by means of visual aids and a lot of authentic materials such as newspapers, letters, time tables, English TV channels and etc.

Grammar teaching can be viewed in two ways: Some structures in grammar may have more than one function and some of them may have just one function.

For example;

When asking for a permission (two forms / one function)

May I come in? (first form for asking for permission)

Would you let me come in? (second form for asking for permission)

The “Can” Modal (one form / more than one function)

We can carry this bag. (ability function)

It can be cloudy tonight. (possibility function)

Real life materials are good for learners’ gaining target culture by authentic materials.

Task based activities encourage students to be more active and social in the class.

Native language is not necessary in CA because the main purpose is to expose students to target language use.

Target language use is a means for communication rather than an end.

Accuracy and fluency are evaluated by integrative and communicative tests.

Improvisational activities can be a good means of evaluation of students oral performances.

The main goal is to make the students communicatively competent in target language.

Students should know the grammatical forms and their functions.

Errors can be tolerated  because they are natural results in learning processes.

Students’ motivation is very important and they must feel themselves secure and relaxed in classes.

Role play activities, games and such enjoyable activities must be carried out to make the class atmosphere better.

Giving the students learning responsibility, using authentic materials, carrying out games and role play activities are good teaching techniques in CA.

Speaking and listening skills are prior to the others, but reading and writing are also used in writing a letter to someone or reading texts.

Summarizing Keywords/Phrases:

Authenticity

Meaningful content

Communication

A relaxed atmosphere

Active learners

No native language use

Improvisation 

COMMUNITY LANGUAGE LEARNING (CLL)

"There is no the best or a better method in language teaching. Every method has advantages and disadvantages in itself."

The Main Theories:

There is a concept called as "true human learning" in CLL.

True human learning must be both in a cognitive and an affective way. This is also termed as "whole person learning".

Some ideas about succesful learning in CLL contain a few psychological factors. These are grouped under an acronym called SARD:

SARD (Security, Attention - Aggression, Retention & Reflection, Discrimination)  

Security: In order to make students feel self-confident and secure enough to attend the class successfully. Student's relation with any person in the class can affect this factor.

Attention: Learners need to be got involved in a successful learning period, this is identified as attention in SARD.

Aggression: It can be identified as a child's trying to explain to his/her parents about what s/he has learnt in the school. This is a way to show his/her power by using the knowledge as a tool. This is also named "self-assertion".

Retention: If a learner retains a material after involving in learnin process as “whole person”, it is internalised and becomes a part of learner. The material should neither be too odd nor too familiar to learner.

Reflection: Students need a reflection period to learn the language properly. Teacher reads a text a few times and students listen to it relaxedly for reflection. Also, students can listen to their own voices by a tap efor reflection.

Discrimination: Students compare their voices with te teacher’s voice in order to see the language form differences clearly in target language between two recordings.

Anexample of Similarity:

Present Continuous:  They are playing together.   

Past Continuous: They were playing together last night (Both sentences contain –ing suffix, but the second one also contain a time expression.)

           An Example of Difference:
           She opened the door closely. (regular verb)
           She knew the truth. (irregular verb)

The Other Features of Community Language Learning:

Language is for communication and improvement of creative thinking.

The focus is on sharing and interacting rather than grammar or sentence forms.

A confidence must develop between students and teacher.

Lifestyle and daily habits must be learnt in target culture.

Teacher is a counsellor in the class and tries to remove the fear and threatening factors in the class.

Teacher may stand behind students during activity periods in order to provide a relaxed atmosphere for students and lets them interact and cooperate with each other.

Students are clients and dependent on the teacher in early stages of classes, in late stages they will get more independent day by day. 

Teacher-student and student-student interactions are seen. Teacher also can stand apart from the activity area to provide a proper student-student interaction.

When teaching vocabulary, in order to make the meaning clear, native language can be given to students with target language.

Grammar can also be taught in native language when necessary. By means of recordings, grammar can be understood by children by comparing two recordings’ differences.

A book is not necessary mostly. Teacher can adopt the course according to students’ needs.

Syllabus is developed according to students’ communication needs. In early stages, event students can decide what to do in target language.

For evaluation, teacher can prepare an integrative (evaluation of whole language aspects) test rather then a discrete-point one. An oral interview and a paragraph writing are useful for evaluation.

The main goal is to teach the students how to use the target language affectively and fluently.

Error is not corrected, its correct form is repeated in order not to call further attention to the error.

In teaching process, students are asked to give feedback about their feelings and thoughts during the class period.

Techniques:

Transcription (writing the native language form of a text in target language and students’ writing them down)  

Reflection on Experience (Students’ feedbacks about the class)

Reflective Listening (Students’ listening to their own voices)

Human Computer (Don’t correct, just repeat.)

Small Group Tasks (Interactions by group works)

Listening and speaking skills are prior to the others. Reading and writing are also used.

Summarizing Keywords/Phrases:

Oral communication

Own voice recording and listening

SARD

Whole person learning

Non-defensive learning

Interactive activities

Student centered teaching

Confidence

Teacher as a counsellor

Student as a client